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A Tibetan proverb states, "The sun and moon in the sky, the Dalai and Panchen Lamas on earth." These great living Buddhas hold supreme religious positions. Both leaders have unparalleled prestige within the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. However, in the early 20th century, the 13th Dalai Lama twice fled Tibet. Similarly, the 9th Panchen Lama fled to Qinghai for over two decades, ultimately dying there. This begs the question, what caused such discord?
The Shifting Sands of Power in Early 20th Century Tibet
The early 20th century brought significant changes to the Qing Dynasty. These changes even impacted remote Tibet. The reincarnation system of Tibetan Buddhist Living Buddhas began in the 12th century. In 1193 AD, Dusum Khyenpa, instructed his followers about his reincarnation. Subsequently, his followers initiated the practice of finding and identifying his next incarnation. This led to the formalization of the Living Buddha reincarnation system.
Over time, this religious system became widely adopted. A systematic approach developed to find, identify, and educate reincarnated Living Buddhas. Numerous Living Buddha lineages emerged across the Tibetan Plateau. By 1949, there were nearly 10,000 Living Buddhas in Tibetan Buddhism.
The Major Schools of Tibetan Buddhism
Many schools of Tibetan Buddhism exist. The four main ones include the Yellow, Red, Sakya, and Kagyu schools. The Gelug school is the Yellow school, with monks wearing yellow hats. The Nyingma school is known as the Red school, due to the red hats of its monks. The Sakya school gets its name from monastery walls. The Kagyu school, known as the White school, has monks who wear white robes.
The Gelug school emerged as the last major school. However, it quickly rose to prominence in the 15th century. It became the leading school in Tibetan Buddhism, surpassing all others. The school plays a vital role in Tibetan society.
The Roles of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama
The Panchen Lama and the Dalai Lama 13th are the most significant Living Buddhas within the Gelug school. They also serve as the highest political leaders. In Tibet, people showed them the same respect they would a ruler. Both receive the highest form of burial, stupa interment.
The title "Dalai Lama" combines the Mongolian word for "ocean" (Dalai) and the Tibetan word for "superior being" (Lama). The full title of the Panchen Lama is "Panchen Erdeni." Panchen means "great scholar." Erdeni is a Manchu word for "pearl."
The Panchen Lama holds a higher religious rank than the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama has more secular power. People see the Panchen Lama as the "Dharma King," with greater religious authority. The Dalai Lama is considered the "Buddha Lord," controlling secular power and political influence.
The Teacher-Student Relationship
Both the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama are "reincarnated" Living Buddhas. They are reborn after death. They can reincarnate from the first to the fourteenth time. Though they reincarnate, they lose knowledge from their previous life. Therefore, they need to relearn it all again.
The reincarnated Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama have high positions. They must resolve the issue of their teachers themselves. The older one becomes the teacher of the younger. This creates a complex relationship. They may switch roles in different lives. The 13th Dalai Lama was actually the teacher of the 9th Panchen Lama.
British Interference and the Seeds of Conflict
The relationship between the Panchen Lama and the Dalai Lama is usually harmonious. However, the struggles between the 9th Panchen Lama and the 13th Dalai Lama were intense. Great Britain played a role in creating this conflict.
After occupying India, the British East India Company began encroaching on the Himalayas. The Qing Dynasty had strengthened control over Tibet. However, Britain did not give up on Tibet. They used neighboring countries as a path to invade.
In 1903, the British Indian Army invaded Tibet. They defeated the Tibetan army through deception. By 1904, the British army was at Lhasa’s gates. The 13th Dalai Lama fled to Outer Mongolia. He hoped to use Russia’s power to return to Tibet.
The Treaty of Lhasa and Its Aftermath
Great Britain attempted to control Tibet by concocting the "Treaty of Lhasa". However, the 13th Dalai Lama had already fled. The Qing Amban refused to sign it. The British then forced representatives from Tibetan monasteries to sign.
The Qing court did not recognize this treaty. They believed that the 13th Dalai Lama authorized the treaty due to the signing by monastery representatives. The Qing court stripped him of his title. They wanted the 9th Panchen Lama to take his place. However, the Panchen Lama refused. The conflict between the Dalai Lama 13th and the Panchen Lama began here.
The Dalai Lama's Exile and Return
Russia treated the 13th Dalai Lama with courtesy. However, Russia was weak from the Russo-Japanese War. They could only provide spiritual support. The Qing court worried about the Dalai Lama's interactions with Russia. To prevent further problems, they restored his title.
The 13th Dalai Lama had to stay outside Tibet. He eventually went to Beijing. He wanted to bypass Qing officials. He felt humiliated by the Qing court. He had to perform a single kneeling bow. This was far from the reverence he was used to.
Escalation of Tensions
The 13th Dalai Lama was dissatisfied with the Qing court. After the deaths of Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi, he returned to Tibet. Upon his return, the Qing Amban accused him of transporting Russian weapons. The Dalai Lama was angered by this. He severed contact with the Qing Amban.
In 1910, the Sichuan army entered Lhasa. They stripped the 13th Dalai Lama of his political power. He fled Lhasa again. He sought support from Great Britain. They gave him political asylum and helped him train his army.
The Dalai Lama's Return and Suppression
After the fall of the Qing dynasty, the 13th Dalai Lama returned to Tibet. He used his troops to eliminate opposition. He began suppressing other powers in Tibet. The 9th Panchen Lama was among the first to be targeted. The Dalai Lama levied taxes and detained monks from his monastery. He began to systematically take away the 9th Panchen Lama’s privileges.
The 9th Panchen Lama retreated as he was under attack. He eventually fled Tibet. The Tibetan people sang of his departure, comparing him to a divine eagle.
The Panchen Lama's Exile and Death
The 9th Panchen Lama secretly fled Tibet in 1923. The 13th Dalai Lama sent troops after him but could not locate him. The Panchen Lama eventually arrived in Lanzhou. He knew that the 13th Dalai Lama was the main threat to his return. He asked the central government for help. He wanted a clear division of power and military support.
The 13th Dalai Lama made demands to the Nationalist government. He wanted the Panchen Lama’s title revoked, weapons confiscated, and to be arrested. The Panchen Lama then publicly announced the Dalai Lama's "Ten Great Crimes."
Chiang Kai-shek was in a difficult position. He decided to appease the 13th Dalai Lama. He did not want to lose his support and ignored the Panchen Lama. The 13th Dalai Lama died in 1933. This removed the greatest obstacle to the Panchen Lama's return to Tibet.
The Panchen Lama planned to return to Tibet. However, Great Britain intervened again. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident occurred and the Nationalist government could not help him. He died in 1937, never realizing his dream of returning to Tibet. The 10th Panchen Lama was chosen after his death, but could only wait in Qinghai.
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