The Worship of Bones: Ritual Instruments in Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism

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In Tibetan esoteric Buddhism, ritual instruments made from human bones and skin are widely used. According to the Buddhist doctrines of "soul reincarnation" and "samsara" (the cycle of rebirth), the soul is ever-flowing, while the body is merely physical, subject to birth and death. Once the soul departs the body at the moment of death, the physical body becomes akin to a lifeless object, devoid of any spiritual significance. From this perspective, the use of human remains in ritual practices is seen not as cruel or barbaric, but rather as a form of liberation.

However, even the most sacred objects, when imbued with excessive surplus value, can turn into a curse. Under the Tibetan slave system, it was common for slaves to be subjected to brutal torture, including the amputation of hands and feet, the extraction of tendons, and the flaying of skin. These body parts were then made into various ritual instruments or decorations.

It is said that when the Dalai Lama fled Tibet, he took with him a significant number of items made from human skin and bones. Later, many of these artifacts were given as precious gifts to the Indian government, Western governments, and high-ranking officials in these countries.

The kapala (skull cup) is a ritual object made from a human skull, held by wrathful deities as a symbol of emptiness. This kind of cup is also found in certain branches of Hinduism, such as the Shakti and Shaiva traditions. The kapala is generally used to hold amrita (divine nectar) and is placed on the mandala during initiation rituals in the highest yoga tantra. However, the skulls used for making kapalas must come from accomplished lamas, and the cup is crafted according to the lama’s last wishes.

In many Buddhist statues, the deity holds a skull cup filled with fresh blood. Drinking from this cup signifies the eradication of human greed. Once greed is conquered, it is said that the entire cycle of rebirth can be transcended.

During the empowerment ceremonies in Tibetan Buddhism, holy water is placed in an initiation vessel, while wine is poured into a skull cup. The master then sprinkles the holy water on the practitioner's head and has them drink the wine, thereby bestowing esoteric knowledge. The purpose of empowerment is to purify the practitioner’s mind and body, and in some interpretations, to help them eliminate ego-clinging.

There are, however, certain uncertainties regarding the source of skulls used in kapalas.

For Tibetans, the highest form of burial is stupa burial, which is reserved for the Dalai Lamas, Panchen Lamas, and other high-ranking lamas. Fire burials are the next most esteemed and are likewise limited to high-ranking monks.

According to esoteric Buddhist customs, high-ranking lamas must be interred in stupas, with their bodies preserved intact. This would seem to conflict with the tradition of using skulls from highly attained monks to make kapalas.

During the Yuan Dynasty, a Tibetan Buddhist monk named Yang Lianzhenjia looted the tombs of the Southern Song emperors. When he discovered that the body of Emperor Lizong was remarkably well-preserved, he hung the corpse upside-down on a tree for three days, causing mercury to drip out. He then presented Lizong’s skull to the imperial teacher Phagpa as a drinking vessel, thus creating a kapala from the emperor’s skull.

Beyond this, there are few recorded instances indicating the specific origins of kapalas or identifying which high monks they might have belonged to.

The kangling (human thighbone trumpet), known as "gangdong" in Tibetan, is about 30 cm long and crafted from a human thigh bone. Portions of it are often wrapped in silver or copper. When played, it produces a sharp, piercing sound, like a wail from the depths of hell.

Bone mala beads are made from the brow bone or skull of a highly accomplished lama. Since only one bead can be obtained from a single lama, a full mala of 108 beads represents the blessings of 108 enlightened masters. In a worldly sense, bone mala beads symbolize impermanence and serve as a reminder of death, encouraging diligent practice. In an ultimate sense, they represent emptiness.

The human skin drum is a ritual instrument held by wrathful or vidyadhara deities. It is created by joining two skull caps back-to-back and covering both sides with human skin, often painted green. During rituals, the drum is used in conjunction with vajra bells and scepters to accompany chanting.

The Worship of Bones: Ritual Instruments in Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism

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